Rites of Initiation

Cultures tend to have a ritual for becoming a new member. A newcomer starts as a nonentity, a stranger, an unaffiliated person with no connection or even possibly awareness of the community. Newcomers who stay around and learn about the culture become members. Most cultures have a rite of initiation that marks the passage of the individual within the community; some of these rituals may be so informal as to be hardly noticed (e.g., the first time a coworker asks you to join the group to eat lunch together), while others may be highly formalized (e.g., the ordination of clergy in a religion). The nonmember becomes a member, the new member becomes a full member, and individuals rise in terms of responsibility and influence.

Business communities are communities first, because without communication and interaction, no business will occur. Even if sales and stock are processed by servers that link database platforms to flow, individuals are still involved in the maintenance, repair, and development of the system. Where there is communication, there is culture, and every business has several cultures.

Across the course of your life, you’ve no doubt passed several rites of initiation but may not have taken notice of them. Did you earn a driver’s license, register to vote, or acquire the permission to purchase alcohol? In North American culture, these three common markers indicate the passing from a previous stage of life to a new one, with new rights and responsibilities. As a child, you weren’t allowed to have a driver’s license. At age fourteen to eighteen, depending on your state and location (rural versus urban), you were allowed to drive a tractor, use farm equipment, operate a motor vehicle during daylight hours, or have full access to public roads. With the privilege of driving comes responsibility. It’s your responsibility to learn what the signs and signals mean and to obey traffic laws for the common safety. For stop signs to work, we all have to agree on the behavior associated with them and observe that behavior.

Sometimes people choose to ignore a stop sign or accidentally miss one, and it places the public in danger. Law enforcement officials reinforce that common safety as representatives of the culture, empowered by the people themselves, based on a common agreement of what a stop sign means and what a driver is supposed to do when approaching one. Some people may argue that law enforcement serves some while it prosecutes others. This point of debate may deserve some consideration, but across cultures, there are rules, signs, and symbols that we share.

Rites of initiation mark the transition of the role or status of the individual within the group. Your first day on the job may have been a challenge as you learned your way around the physical space, but the true challenge was to learn how the group members communicate with each other. If you graduate from college with a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree, you’ll already have passed a series of tests, learned terms and theories, and possess a symbol of accomplishment in your diploma—but that only grants you the opportunity to look for a job, to seek access to a new culture.

In every business, there are groups, power struggles, and unspoken ways that members earn their way from the role of a “newbie” to that of a full member. The newbie may get the tough account, the office without a window, or the cubicle next to the bathroom, denoting low status. As the new member learns to navigate through the community—establishing a track record and being promoted—they pass the rite of initiation and acquire new rights and responsibilities.

Over time, the person comes to be an important part of the business, a “keeper of the flame.” The “flame” may not exist in physical space or time, but it does exist in the minds of those members in the community who have invested time and effort in the business. It’s not a flame to be trusted by a new person, as it can only be earned with time. Along the way, there may be personality conflicts and power struggles over resources and perceived scarcity (e.g., there’s only one promotion and everyone wants it). All these challenges are to be expected in any culture.

Common History and Traditions

Think for a moment about the history of a business like Ford Motor Company—what are your associations with Henry Ford, the assembly line manufacturing system, or the Model T? Or the early days of McDonald’s? Do you have an emotional response to mental images of the “golden arches” logo, Ronald McDonald, or the Big Mac sandwich? Traditions form as the organization grows and expands, and stories are told and retold to educate new members on how business should be conducted. The history of every culture, of every corporation, influences the present. There are times when the phrase “we’ve tried that before” can become a stumbling block for members of the organization as it grows and adapts to new market forces. There may be struggles between members who have weathered many storms and new members who come armed with new educational perspectives, technological tools, or experiences that may contribute to growth.

Common Values and Principles

Cultures all hold values and principles that are commonly shared and communicated from older members to younger (or newer) ones. Time and length of commitment are associated with an awareness of these values and principles, so that new members, whether they’re socialized at home, in school, or at work, may not have a thorough understanding of their importance. For example, time (fast customer service) and cleanliness are two cornerstone values of the McDonald’s corporation. A new employee may take these for granted, while a seasoned professional who inspects restaurants may see the continued need to reinforce these core values. Without reinforcement, norms may gradually change, and if this were the case, it could fundamentally change the customer experience associated with McDonald’s.

Common Purpose and Sense of Mission

Cultures share a common sense of purpose and mission. Why are we here, and whom do we serve? These are fundamental questions of the human condition that philosophers and theologians all over the world have pondered for centuries. In business, the answers to these questions often address purpose and mission, and they can be found in the mission and vision statements of almost every organization. Individual members will be expected to acknowledge and share the mission and vision, actualize them, or make them real through action. Without action, the mission and vision statements are simply an arrangement of words. As a guide to individual and group behavioral norms, they can serve as a powerful motivator and a call to action.

Common Symbols, Boundaries, Status, Language, and Rituals

Most of us learn early in life what a stop sign represents, but do we know what military stripes represent on a sleeve, or a ten-year service pin on a lapel, or a corner office with two windows? Cultures have common symbols that mark them as a group; the knowledge of what a symbol stands for helps reinforce who is a group member and who isn’t. You may have a brand on your arm from your fraternity, or wear a college ring—symbols that represent groups you affiliate with temporarily, while you’re a student. They may or may not continue to hold meaning to you when your college experience is over. Cultural symbols include dress, such as the Western business suit and tie, the Scottish kilt, or the Islamic headscarf. Symbols also include slogans or sayings, such as “you’re in good hands” or “you deserve a break today.” The slogan may serve a marketing purpose, but may also embrace a mission or purpose within the culture. Family crests and clan tartan patterns serve as symbols of affiliation. Symbols can also be used to communicate rank and status within the group.

Space is another common cultural characteristic; it may be a nonverbal symbol that represents status and power. In most of the world’s cultures, a person occupying superior status is entitled to a physically elevated position—a throne, a dais, a podium from which to address subordinates. Subordinates may be expected to bow, curtsy, or lower their eyes as a sign of respect. In business, the corner office may offer the best view with the most space. Movement from a cubicle to a private office may also be a symbol of transition within an organization, involving increased responsibility as well as power. Parking spaces, the kind of vehicle you drive, and the transportation allowance you have may also communicate symbolic meaning within an organization.

The office serves our discussion on the second point concerning boundaries. Would you sit on your boss’s desk or sit in his chair with your feet up on the desk in his presence? Most people indicate they wouldn’t, because doing so would communicate a lack of respect, violate normative space expectations, and invite retaliation. But subtle challenges to authority may arise in the workplace. A less-than-flattering photograph of the boss at the office party posted to the recreational room bulletin board communicates more than a lack of respect for authority. By placing the image anonymously in a public place, the prankster clearly communicates a challenge, even if it’s a juvenile one. Movement from the cubicle to the broom closet may be the result for someone who’s found responsible for the prank. Again, there are no words used to communicate meaning, only symbols, but those symbols represent significant issues.

Communities have their own unique vocabularies and ways in which they communicate. Consider the person who uses a sewing machine to create a dress and the accountant behind the desk; both are professionals, and both have specialized jargon used in their field. If they were to change places, the lack of skills would present an obstacle, but the lack of understanding of terms, how they’re used, and what they mean would also severely limit their effectiveness. Those terms and how they’re used are learned over time and through interaction. While a textbook can help, it can’t demonstrate use in live interactions. Cultures are dynamic systems that reflect the communication process itself.

Cultures celebrate heroes, denigrate villains, and have specific ways of completing jobs and tasks. In business and industry, the emphasis may be on effectiveness and efficiency, but the practice can often be “because that’s the way we’ve always done it.” Rituals serve to guide our performance and behavior and may be limited to small groups or celebrated across the entire company. A pink Cadillac has a special meaning for a Mary Kay cosmetics representative. How that car is received is ritualistic, recognizing current success while honoring past performances across the company.

Rituals can serve to bind a group together, or to constrain it. Institutions tend to formalize processes and then struggle to adapt to new circumstances. While the core values or mission statement may hold, the approach that worked in the past may not be as successful as it once was. Adaptation and change can be difficult for individuals and companies, and yet all communities, cultures, and communication contexts are dynamic, or always changing. As much as we might like things to stay the same, they will always change—and we’ll change with (and be changed by) them.

Edward T. Hall

Edward T. Hall is a pioneer in exploring cultural variances and their significance in communication. His work, Beyond Culture, is a cornerstone for intercultural communication.^[16] Hall believed cultures blend both spoken and unspoken elements in conveying messages. In his 1959 publication, The Silent Language, he remarked, “culture is communication and communication is culture.”^[17]

High-Context versus Low-Context Cultures

Hall’s seminal concept is the distinction between low-context and high-context cultures. He introduced the terms low-context communication (LCC) and high-context communication (HCC) to differentiate communication styles across cultures. Simply put, “in LCC, meaning is expressed through explicit verbal messages, both written and oral. In HCC, on the other hand, intention or meaning can best be conveyed through implicit contexts, including gestures, social customs, silence, nuance, or tone of voice.”

In low-context cultures (e.g., United States, Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and Germany), communication is more explicit. It relies on direct language, whereas in high-context cultures (e.g., Japan, Korea, Indonesia, China, and Kenya) much of the communication is unspoken and understood through context, body language, and shared cultural norms. Being unaware of these differences can lead to significant misunderstandings, misconstrued intentions, and missed cues in a business setting. For instance, a straightforward business proposal may be seen as rudimentary or even disrespectful in a high-context culture. At the same time, an indirect approach might be perceived as ambiguous or unclear in a low-context one. Grasping these nuances ensures clearer communication, solidifies trust, and builds successful cross-cultural business relationships.

Time Orientation: Monochronic versus Polychronic

Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider one thing at a time. Polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time, and time is considered in a more fluid sense.^[18] In monochronic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its own specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochronic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. The United States, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochronic time orientation.

Polychronic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time; business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but when they actually begin may be another story. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may in reality be more like 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the hosts aren’t quite ready to receive you.

When in doubt, always ask before the event. Many people from polychronic cultures will be used to foreigners’ tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established times for events. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in many ways, and your understanding can help you communicate more effectively.

Geert Hofstede

Another influential scholar in cultural studies is Geert Hofstede. Since the 1970s, Hofstede studied the work ethos across different cultures. His 1980 work, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, outlines various cultural disparities.^[19] Over decades, he refined his cultural framework, the latest update being in 2010.^[20] His research identified six distinct cultural parameters: power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term vs. short-term orientation, and indulgence vs. restraint.

Power Distance

This dimension gauges how a society accepts and expects power to be distributed unevenly. How comfortable are you with critiquing your boss’s decisions? If you’re from a low-power distance culture, your answer might be “no problem.” In low-power distance cultures, according to Hofstede, people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their actual formal roles as employee and manager, for example.^[21]

In high power distance cultures, decisions are typically top-down, with subordinates expecting to be told what to do. Formality and respect for hierarchical positions are stressed. You’d probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input. If you’re working with people from a high-power distance culture, you may need to take extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion because their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or know there’s a significant problem.

Hofstede’s data suggests the most pronounced power distance in Malaysia, Slovakia, Guatemala, Panama, and the Philippines, with the least in Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, and German-speaking Switzerland.

Individualism versus Collectivism

People in individualistic cultures value individual freedom and personal independence, and cultures always have stories to reflect their values. You may recall the story of Superman, or John McLean in the Die Hard series, and note how one person overcomes all obstacles. Through personal ingenuity, in spite of challenges, one person rises successfully to conquer or vanquish those obstacles. Sometimes there’s an assist, as in basketball or football, where another person lends a hand, but still the story repeats itself, reflecting the cultural viewpoint.

The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures.^[22] He found that in individualistic cultures like the United States, people perceived their world primarily from their viewpoint. They perceived themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making their own decisions and able to make an impact on their own lives.

In individualist cultures, the emphasis is on personal achievements and individual rights. Business communication is direct, and people speak their minds. Cultural viewpoint isn’t an either/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values, while others place the focus on a collective viewpoint. Collectivist cultures, including many in Asia and South America, focus on the needs of the nation, community, family, or group of workers. In collectivist cultures, harmony and in-group cohesion are prioritized. Communication can be indirect to avoid causing discomfort or conflict.

Ownership and private property are one way to examine this difference. In some cultures, property is almost exclusively private, while others tend toward community ownership. The collectively owned resource returns benefits to the community. The U.S. ranks high in individualism, valuing personal freedoms and achievements. Most Asian nations lean toward collectivism, prioritizing group over individual benefits.

Masculinity versus Femininity

There was a time when many cultures and religions valued a female figurehead, and with the rise of Western cultures, we’ve observed a shift toward a masculine ideal. Each carries with it a set of cultural expectations and norms for gender behavior and gender roles across life, including business.

This dimension isn’t about gender but about work objectives. Hofstede describes the masculine-feminine dichotomy not in terms of whether men or women hold the power in a given culture, but rather the extent to which that culture values certain traits that may be considered masculine or feminine. Masculine cultures value assertiveness, achievement, and material rewards, whereas feminine ones emphasize relationships, cooperation, and quality of life.

Thus, “the assertive pole has been called ‘masculine’ and the modest, caring pole ‘feminine.’ The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries, they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men’s values and women’s values.”^[23]

In masculine cultures, there’s a preference for assertive, competitive, and ambitious communication. Achievements and performance are emphasized. Feminine cultures prioritize relationships, empathy, and consensus in communication. We can observe this difference in where people gather, how they interact, and how they dress. Business in the United States has a masculine orientation—assertiveness and competition are highly valued. In other cultures, such as Sweden, business values are more attuned to modesty (lack of self-promotion) and taking care of society’s weaker members.

The top five most masculine countries are Slovakia, Japan, Hungary, Austria, and Venezuela. The top five most feminine countries are Sweden, Norway, Latvia, Netherlands, and Denmark.

Uncertainty Avoidance

When we meet each other for the first time, we often use what we’ve previously learned to understand our current context. We also do this to reduce our uncertainty. This dimension refers to how societies deal with ambiguity. Some cultures, such as the United States and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to reduce the element of surprise. Cultures in the Arab world, for example, are high in uncertainty avoidance; they tend to be resistant to change and reluctant to take risks. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.

Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance perceive unfamiliar situations as threats, resulting in heightened anxiety levels. They prefer clear guidelines, detailed instructions, and are risk averse. Low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more accepting of unknowns and are more open to innovation, taking risks, and may prefer flexible approaches.

Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese developed uncertainty reduction theory to examine this dynamic aspect of communication.^[24]

The top five cultures representing the high end of uncertainty avoidance are Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, and Flemish Belgium. The top five cultures representing the low end of uncertainty avoidance are Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark, Sweden, and Hong Kong.

Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation

Do you want your reward right now, or can you dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results don’t materialize. This dimension examines the balance every society strikes between honoring its past and preparing for its future.

Geert Hofstede discusses this relationship of time orientation to a culture as a “time horizon,” and it underscores the perspective of the individual within a cultural context.^[25] Many countries in Asia, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including the United States, have a more short-term approach to life and results. Native American cultures are known for holding a long-term orientation, as illustrated by the proverb attributed to the Iroquois that decisions require contemplation of their impact seven generations removed.

Normative cultures (those with a short-term orientation) deeply value their long-standing traditions and norms. Change, especially rapid societal transformation, is often met with caution and skepticism. If you work within a culture that has a short-term orientation, you may need to place greater emphasis on reciprocation of greetings, gifts, and rewards. Personal stability and consistency are also valued in a short-term-oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and familiarity.

Conversely, pragmatic cultures (those with a long-term orientation) adopt a more forward-thinking stance. They promote values like thriftiness and strongly emphasize modern education, viewing these as tools for future preparedness and success. Long-term orientation is often marked by persistence, thrift, and frugality, and an order to relationships based on age and status. In long-term-oriented cultures, business strategies and communication focus on long-term benefits and sustained growth. Patience is valued.

The top five countries representing long-term orientations are China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and Russia. The top five countries representing short-term orientations are Pakistan, the Czech Republic, Nigeria, Spain, and the Philippines.

Indulgence versus Restraint

This dimension examines a society’s approach to happiness and contentment. Indulgent societies allow free expression of desires and emphasize enjoyment. Restrained societies believe in curbing these desires with strict norms.^[26]

Cultures that value indulgence prioritize work-life balance, creativity, and individual expression. In restrained cultures, there’s a focus on discipline, regulations, and adherence to societal norms. According to Hofstede’s research, the countries with the highest level of indulgence are Venezuela, Mexico, Puerto Rico (though technically a U.S. territory), El Salvador, and Nigeria. Conversely, more restrained countries include Pakistan, Egypt, Latvia, Ukraine, and Albania.

Other Cultural Characteristics

Beyond the frameworks established by Hall and Hofstede, several other important cultural dimensions affect communication and business interactions across cultures.

Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule Cultures

Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual or by observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures communicate rules in the same way. Carley Dodd discusses this difference and has found quite a range of differences.^[27]

In an explicit-rule culture, where rules are clearly communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced prior to the gathering. In an implicit-rule culture, where rules are often understood and communicated nonverbally, there may be no agenda. Everyone knows why they’re gathered and what role each member plays, even though the expectations may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral expectations may all be understood, and to the person from outside this culture, it may prove a challenge to understand the rules of the context.

Outsiders often communicate their “otherness” by not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or how to initiate a conversation if the rules aren’t clearly stated. While it may help to know that implicit-rule cultures are often more tolerant of deviation from the understood rules, the newcomer will be wise to learn by observing quietly—and to do as much research ahead of the event as possible.

Direct versus Indirect Communication

In the United States, business correspondence is expected to be short and to the point. “What can I do for you?” is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it’s an accepted way of asking the caller to state their business. In some cultures, it’s quite appropriate to make direct personal observation, such as “You’ve changed your hairstyle,” while for others, it may be observed but never spoken of in polite company.

In indirect cultures, such as those in Latin America, business conversations may start with discussions of the weather, family, or topics other than business as the partners gain a sense of each other, long before the topic of business is raised. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before entering it, as a social faux pas, or error, can have a significant impact.

Materialism versus Relationships

Does the car someone drives say something about them? You may consider that many people across the planet don’t own a vehicle and that a car or truck is a statement of wealth. But beyond that, do the make and model reflect their personality? If you’re from a materialistic culture, you may be inclined to say yes. If you’re from a culture that values relationships rather than material objects, you may say no or focus on how the vehicle serves the family.

Members of a materialistic culture place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, power, and social rank. If you consider the plate of food before you and consider the labor required to harvest the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal, you’re focusing more on the relationships involved with its production than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a luxury, and it may communicate your ability to acquire and offer a delicacy, but it also represents an effort. Cultures differ in how they view material objects and their relationship to them, and some value people and relationships more than the objects themselves. The United States and Japan are often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place more emphasis on relationships.

Conclusion

This discussion sheds light on the intricate nature of cultures. Effective cross-cultural communication involves more than direct language translation. The content itself has to be culturally adapted to resonate with international audiences. Localization strategies tailor messaging for each market’s communication customs, values, norms, and preferences. Investing in cultural competence prevents missteps, like inadvertently offensive slogans. This level of care in cross-cultural communications builds credibility and trustworthy relationships vital to global business success.

How does someone raised in a culture that emphasizes the community interact with someone raised in a primarily individualistic culture? How could tensions be expressed, and how might these points of divergence influence interactions? Understanding these cultural frameworks provides the foundation for handling such complex intercultural encounters successfully. Unless you’re sensitive to cultural orientation and these various dimensions, you may lose valuable information and miss opportunities for meaningful cross-cultural collaboration.

Political Systems

You may be familiar with democracy, or rule by the people; and theocracy, or rule of God by his or her designates; but the world presents a diverse range of how people are governed. It’s also important to note, as we examine political systems, that they’re created, maintained, and changed by people. Just as people change over time, so do all systems that humans create. A political climate that was once closed to market forces, including direct and indirect investment, may change over time.

Centuries ago, China built a physical wall to keep out invaders. In the twentieth century, it erected another kind of wall: a political wall that separated the country from the Western world and limited entrepreneurship due to its interpretation of communism. In 2009, the formerly closed market is now open for business. To what extent it’s open may be a point of debate, but simple observation provides ample evidence of a country and a culture open to investment and trade. The opening and closing ceremonies for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing symbolized this openness, with symbolic representations of culture combined with notable emphasis on welcoming the world. As the nature of global trade and change transforms business, it also transforms political systems.

Political systems are often framed in terms of how people are governed and the extent to which they may participate. Democracy is one form of government that promotes the involvement of the individual, but even here, we can observe stark differences. In the United States, people are encouraged to vote, but it’s not mandatory, and voter turnout is often so low that voting minorities have great influence on the larger political system. In Chile, voting is mandatory, so all individuals are expected to participate, with adverse consequences if they don’t. This doesn’t mean there aren’t still voting minorities or groups with disproportionate levels of influence and power, but it does underscore cultural values and their many representations.

Centralized rule of the people also comes in many forms. In a dictatorship, the dictator establishes and enforces the rules with few checks and balances, if any. In a totalitarian system, one party makes the rules. The Communist states of the twentieth century (although egalitarian in theory) were ruled in practice by a small central committee. In a theocracy, one religion makes the rules based on its primary documents or interpretation of them, and religious leaders hold positions of political power. In each case, political power is centralized in a small group over the many.

A third type of political system is anarchy, in which there’s no government. A few places in the world, notably Somalia, may be said to exist in a state of anarchy. But even in a state of anarchy, the lack of a central government means that local warlords, elders, and others exercise significant political, military, and economic power. The lack of an established governing system itself creates the need for informal power structures that regulate behavior and conduct, set and promote ideals, and engage in commerce and trade, even if that engagement involves nonstandard strategies such as the appropriation of ships via piracy. In the absence of appointed or elected leaders, emergent leaders will rise as people attempt to meet their basic needs.

Legal Systems

Legal systems also vary across the planet and come in many forms. Some legal systems promote the rule of law while others promote the rule of culture, including customs, traditions, and religions. The two most common systems are civil and common law. Civil law draws from Roman history and common law from an English tradition. In civil law, the rules are spelled out in detail, and judges are responsible for applying the law to the given case. In common law, the judge interprets the law and considers the concept of precedent, or previous decisions. Common law naturally adapts to changes in technology and modern contexts as precedents accumulate. Civil law requires new rules to be written out to reflect the new context, even as the context transforms and changes. Civil law is more predictable and is practiced in the majority of countries. Common law involves more interpretation that can produce conflict with multiple views on the application of the law in question. The third type of law draws its rules from a theological base rooted in religion. This system presents unique challenges to the outsider and warrants thorough research.

Economic Systems

Economic systems vary in similar ways across cultures, and again reflect the norms and customs of people. Economies are often described in terms of the relationship between people and their government. An economy with a high degree of government intervention may prove challenging for both internal and external businesses. An economy with relatively little government oversight may be said to reflect more of the market(s) and to be less restricted. Along these same lines, the government may perceive its role as a representative of the common good, to protect individual consumers, and to prevent fraud and exploitation.

This continuum or range, from high to low degrees of government involvement, reflects the concept of government itself. A government may be designed to give everyone access to the market, with little supervision, in the hope that people will regulate transactions based on their own needs, wants, and desires—in essence, their self-interest. If everyone operates in one’s self-interest and word gets out that one business produces a product that fails to work as advertised, it’s often believed that the market will naturally gravitate away from this faulty product to a competing product that works properly. Individual consumers, however, may have a hard time knowing which product to have faith in and may look to the government to provide that measure of safety.

Government certification of food, for example, attempts to reduce disease. Meat from unknown sources would lack the seal of certification, alerting the consumer to evaluate the product closely or choose another product. In terms of supervision, we can see an example of this when Japan restricted the sale of U.S. beef due to concerns about mad cow disease in the early 2000s. The fears may be warranted from the consumer’s viewpoint, or it may be protectionist from a business standpoint, protecting the local producer over the importer. Don’t worry, the United States became the top seller of beef to Japan again in 2023.^[28]

From meat to financial products, we can see both the dangers and positive attributes of intervention and can also acknowledge that its application may be less than consistent. Some cultures that value the community may naturally look to their government for leadership in economic areas. Those who represent an individualistic tendency may take a more “hands-off” approach.

Ethical Systems

Ethical systems, unlike political, legal, and economic systems, are generally not formally institutionalized. This doesn’t imply, however, that they’re less influential in interactions, trade, and commerce. Ethics refers to a set of norms and principles that relate to individual and group behavior, including businesses and organizations. They may be explicit, in the form of an organization’s code of conduct; may be represented in religion, as in the Ten Commandments; or may reflect cultural values in law. What’s legal and what’s ethical are at times quite distinct.

For example, the question of executive bonuses was hotly debated when several U.S. financial services companies accepted taxpayer money under the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) in 2008. It was legal for TARP recipient firms to pay bonuses—indeed, some lawyers argued that failing to pay promised bonuses would violate contract law—but many taxpayers believed it was unethical.

Some cultures have systems of respect and honor that require tribute and compensation for service, while others may view payment as a form of bribe. It may be legal in one country to make a donation or support a public official to influence a decision, but it may be unethical. In some countries, it may be both illegal and unethical. Given the complexity of human values and their expression across behaviors, it’s wise to research the legal and ethical norms of the place or community where you want to do business.

Global Village

International trade has advantages and disadvantages, again based on your viewpoint and cultural reference. If you come from a traditional culture with strong gender norms and codes of conduct, you may not appreciate the importation of some Western television programs that promote what you consider to be content that contradicts your cultural values. You may also take the viewpoint from a basic perspective and assert that basic goods and services that can only be obtained through trade pose a security risk. If you can’t obtain the product or service, it may put you, your business, or your community at risk.

“Just in time” delivery methods may produce shortages when the systems break down due to weather, transportation delays, or conflict. People come to know each other through interactions (and transactions are fundamental to global trade), but cultural viewpoints may come into conflict. Some cultures may want a traditional framework to continue and will promote their traditional cultural values and norms at the expense of innovation and trade. Other cultures may come to embrace diverse cultures and trade, only to find that they’ve welcomed some who wish to harm. In a modern world, transactions have a cultural dynamic that can’t be ignored.

Intercultural communication and business have been related since the first exchange of value. People, even from the same community, had to arrive at a common understanding of value. Symbols, gestures, and even language reflect these values. Attention to this central concept will enable the skilled business communicator to look beyond their own viewpoint.

It was once the privilege of the wealthy to travel, and the merchant or explorer knew firsthand what many could only read about. Now we can take virtual tours of locations we may never travel to, and as the cost of travel decreases, we can increasingly see the world for ourselves. As global trade has developed and time to market has decreased, the world has effectively grown smaller. While the size hasn’t changed, our ability to navigate has been dramatically decreased. Time and distance are no longer the obstacles they once were. The Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan, a pioneer in the field of communication, predicted what we now know as the “global village.” The global village is characterized by information and transportation technologies that reduce the time and space required to interact.^[29]

Theory X

In an influential book titled The Human Side of Enterprise, M.I.T. management professor Douglas McGregor described two contrasting perceptions on how and why people work, formulating Theory X and Theory Y; they’re both based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.^{[30] [31][32]} According to this model, people are concerned first with physical needs (e.g., food, shelter) and second with safety. At the third level, people seek love, acceptance, and intimacy. Self-esteem, achievement, and respect are the fourth level. Finally, the fifth level embodies self-actualization.

McGregor’s Theory X asserts that workers are motivated by their basic (low-level) needs and have a general disposition against labor. In this viewpoint, workers are considered lazy and predicted to avoid work if they can, giving rise to the perceived need for constant, direct supervision. A Theory X manager may be described as authoritarian or autocratic and doesn’t seek input or feedback from employees. The view further holds that workers are motivated by personal interest, avoid discomfort, and seek pleasure. The Theory X manager uses control and incentive programs to provide punishment and rewards. Responsibility is the domain of the manager, and the view is that employees will avoid it if at all possible, to the extent that blame is always deflected or attributed to something other than personal responsibility. Lack of training, inferior machines, or failure to provide the necessary tools are all reasons to stop working, and it’s up to the manager to fix these issues.

Theory Y

In contrast to Theory X, Theory Y views employees as ambitious, self-directed, and capable of self-motivation. Employees have a choice, and they prefer to do a good job as a representation of self-actualization. The pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are part of being human, but work is also a reward in itself, and employees take pride in their efforts. Employees want to reach their fullest potential and define themselves by their profession. A job well done is a reward in and of itself, and the employee may be a valuable source of feedback. Collaboration is viewed as normal, and the worker may need little supervision.

Theory Z

Theory X and Y may seem like two extremes across the range of management styles, but in fact, they’re often combined in actual work settings. William Ouchi’s Theory Z combines elements of both and draws from American and Japanese management style.^[33] It promotes worker participation and emphasizes job rotation, skills development, and loyalty to the company.^[34] Workers are seen as having a high need for reinforcement, and belonging is emphasized. Theory Z workers are trusted to do their jobs with excellence and management is trusted to support them, looking out for their well-being.^[35]

Each of these theories of management features a viewpoint with assumptions about people and why they do what they do. While each has been the subject of debate, and variations on each have been introduced across organizational communication and business, they serve as a foundation for understanding management in an intercultural context.

Preparation

With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and strategies to make you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First, we’ll dispel a couple of myths associated with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next, we’ll examine the traits and skills of the successful expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the acculturation process.

Your experience with other cultures may have come firsthand, but for most, a foreign location like Paris is an idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for its art, as a place for lovers, or as a great place to buy bread. But if you’ve only ever known about a place through the lens of a camera, you’ve only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by others. You’ll lack the multidimensional view of one who lives and works in Paris, and even if you’re aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent changes, these are all academic observations until the moment of experience.

That’s not to say that research doesn’t form a solid foundation in preparation for an international assignment. But it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real life. Awareness of this difference is an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign culture.

If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a consideration, you should take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some knowledge of the language, an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures. If family members aren’t a part of the decision, or lack the language skills or interest, the assignment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. Sixty-four percent of expatriate respondents who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were the primary reason.^[39]

Points to consider include the following:

• How flexible are you?
• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?
• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?
• Are you interested in the host culture and willing to dedicate the time and effort to learn more about it?
• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?
• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?
• Is your family supportive of the assignment?
• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your career?
• Will this assignment benefit your family?
• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?
• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?
• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you’re in daily written and oral communication with the home office?
• What’s your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and tension that will result if things don’t go as planned?
• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar to—or unlike—your own, and how ready are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or direct versus indirect styles of communication?

This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea of an international assignment. An international assignment isn’t like a domestic move or reassignment. Within the same country, even if there are significantly different local customs in place, similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are present. In a foreign country, you’ll lose those familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new ways of accomplishing your given tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings and a month to achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration as you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results aren’t immediate, as they lack even your limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your employer will experience stress, and your ability to communicate your situation will require tact and finesse.

Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages and about new cultures, and skilled at finding common ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn the new customs and find the advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and aren’t afraid to ask for help when it’s warranted or required. They feel secure in their place as explorers and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they’re unpredictable. Being a stranger is no easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.

Acculturation Process

Acculturation, or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster. Steven Rhinesmith provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture shock, that you may experience:^[40]

1. Initial anxiety
2. Initial elation
3. Initial culture shock
4. Superficial adjustment
5. Depression-frustration
6. Acceptance of host culture
7. Return anxiety
8. Return elation
9. Reentry shock
10. Reintegration

Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experience a degree of anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first, the “honeymoon” period is observed, with a sense of elation at all the newfound wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning where to get familiar foods or new ways to meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture, divergence will become a trend, and you’ll notice many things that frustrate you. You won’t anticipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five minutes, or could be handled over the Internet, and find that businesses close during midday, preventing you from accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you’ll feel that living in this new culture is simply exhausting. Many expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the temptation to visit back home, you’ll only prolong your difficult adjustment.

Over time, if you persevere, you’ll come to accept and adjust to your host culture and learn how to accomplish your goals with less frustration and more ease. You may come to appreciate several cultural values or traits and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you’ll need to return to your first, or home, culture, but that transition will bring a sense of anxiety. People and places change, the familiar is no longer so familiar, and you, too, have changed. You may once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and experience a sense of comfort in home and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You may look at your home culture in a new way and question things that are done in a particular way that you’ve always considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad and begin the process of reintegration.

You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country and long to return. Expatriates are often noted for “going native,” or adopting the host culture’s way of life. However, even the most confirmed expats still gather to hear the familiar sound of their first language and find community in people like themselves who have blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.

Living and Working Abroad

To learn to swim, you have to get in the water, and all the research and preparation can’t take the place of direct experience. Your awareness of culture shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of the language will assist you, but know that living and working abroad takes time and effort. Still, several guidelines can serve you well as you start your new life in a strange land:

1. Be open and creative. People will eat foods that seem strange or try new things, and your openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your living quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure to and understanding of the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new setting may be uncomfortable, you’ll learn much more about your host culture and yourself if you’re open to new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your comfort zone.
2. Be self-reliant. Things that were once easy or took little time may now be challenging or take all day. Focus on your ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job done, and be prepared to do new things.
3. Keep a balanced perspective. Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither was your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn from if you’re open to them.
4. Be patient. Take your time, and know that a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes only provide a base from which you’ll learn how people who live in the host country actually communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day, and you won’t learn to navigate this culture overnight either.
5. Be a student and a teacher. You’re learning as a new member of the community, but as a full member of your culture, you can share your experiences as well.
6. Be an explorer. Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Traveling to surrounding villages or across neighboring borders can expand your perspective and help you learn.
7. Protect yourself. Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you, or in a safe location. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you’re not fluent in the language, or where the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge. Your passport is essential to your safety, and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider vaccination records, birth certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them safe and accessible. You may want to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need, including food, water, keys, and small tools, as an essential part of planning in case of an emergency.